Link Between Obesity and Lack of Sleep

Link Between Obesity and Lack of Sleep Zara J. Damania Abstract This study aims to investigate whether there is a bidirectional relationship between poor sleep quality, high body mass index (BMI) and disordered eating (binge-eating and night-time eating). Participants were a community-derived sample (N= 330) of people recruited through advertisements placed at the Australian National University (ANU) campus and a number of online platforms. An online questionnaire asked participants for their height, weight and recent experiences of sleep and eating. Multiple regression analyses found that: (a) worse overall sleep quality and binge-eating (but not night-time eating) were positively associated with high BMI accounting for a significant 8% of the variability in BMI; and (b) high BMI and night-time eating (but not binge-eating) were positively associated with worse overall sleep quality accounting for 35.6% of the variability in worse overall sleep quality. These results indicate that disordered eating (binge- and/or night-time eating) partially des cribe the association between poor sleep quality and high BMI. Future research could be conducted using objective- rather than self-reported- measures of sleep quality, BMI and eating behaviour to control for inaccuracies that self-reported measures might pose. The Bidirectional Association between High Body Mass Index, Poor Sleep Quality and Disordered Eating This paper investigates whether there is a bidirectional relationship between poor sleep quality, high body mass index and disordered eating. Current research corroborates the association between poor sleep quality and being overweight or obese. Sleep quality is a broad concept that includes: sleep duration, difficulty falling and/or staying asleep and the use of sleep medications (Buysse, Reynolds, Monk, Berman Kupfer, 1989; Krystal Edinger, 2008). This study makes use of the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) to measure sleep quality. PSQI is an effective and widely used self-reported instrument that is high in reliability and validity, consisting of questions that are easy to understand and answer (Buysse et al., 1989; Smyth, 1999). PSQI measures subjective sleep quality in seven distinct areas, including: sleep latency and sleep duration (Krystal Edinger, 2008; Smyth, 1999). One of the key interests in this study is the association between PSQ and having a high body mass index (BMI); i.e., being overweight or obese. According to the World Health Organisation’s classification, a BMI of ≠¥25 indicates that a person is overweight and ≠¥30 indicates that a person is obese (World Health Organization, 2000). Empirical evidence corroborates an association between PSQ and having a high BMI (hBMI). For instance, longitudinal studies and studies on large mixed-race and socioeconomically diverse samples found that sleeping less than seven hours and having trouble falling and/or staying asleep was positively associated with hBMI (Gangwisch, Malaspina, Boden-Albala Heymsfield, 2005; Meyer, Wall, Larson, Laska Neumark-sztainer, 2012). Furthermore, empirical findings from cross-sectional studies with mixed-race samples indicate that: obese individuals experience shorter sleep durations compared to non-obese individuals; for every hour of sleep lost th e risk of obesity increased by 80%; and PSQ leads to decreases in physical activity which is consequently associated with hBMI (Cappuccio, et al., 2008; Gupta, Mueller, Chan Meininger, 2002) Very few studies that attempted to explain how PSQ is associated with hBMI found that sleep apnea might mediate this relationship (Yeh Brown, 2014). Sleep apnea refers to sleep disturbance due to continual interruptions to airflow through the nose and mouth on at least 30 occasions during a seven-hour sleep period (Guilleminault, Tilkian Dement, 1976). However, sleep apnea is relatively uncommon in the population (Tishler, Larkin, Schulchter Redline, 2003) while PSQ is more common (Buysse, Reynolds, Monk, Berman Kupfer, 1989). Therefore, it can be inferred that only a small proportion of hBMI individuals with PSQ suffer from sleep apnea and there might be other potential explanations for the association between PSQ and hBMI (Yeh Brown, 2014). Given that no other studies have attempted to further investigate factors that mediate the relationship between PSQ and hBMI, this study attempts to do so by investigating whether disordered eating mediates this relationship. Disordered eating includes both: binge eating and night-time eating. Binge eating (BE) refers to consuming unusually large amounts of food in a relatively short time-span and perceived lack of control over one’s eating behaviour (American Psychiatric Association, as cited in Johnson, Carr-Nangle, Nangle, Antony Zayfert, 1997). This study uses the Binge Eating Scale (BES) a questionnaire that measures whether and to what extent individuals binge eat by inquiring about their eating behaviours and tendencies (Gormally, Black, Daston Rardin, 1982). Whereas, night-time eating (NTE) refers to consuming >25% of one’s caloric intake after dinner and/or after waking up at night, at least twice a week (Allison et al., 2010; Stunkard, GraceWolff). This stud y uses the Night-time Eating Questionnaire (NEQ) to identify whether and the frequency of which participants engage in NTE behaviour (Striegel-Moore, Franko Garcia, 2009). Yeh and Brown (2014) suggest that difficulty falling asleep and shorter sleep durations provide hBMI individuals with more time to eat, consequently leading to weight gain over time. This is in accordance with Andersen, Stunkard, Sorenson, Peterson and Heitmann (2004) and Crispim, Zimberg, dos Reis, Tufik and de Mello (2011) who respectively found that NTE was associated with both PSQ and weight gain in hBMI individuals. Similarly, empirical research has indicated that BE is associated with PSQ and hBMI in obese individuals (Yeh Brown, 2014). In light of both: the lack of research investigating potential mediators of the association between PSQ and hBMI and research indicating that disordered eating is associated with PSQ and hBMI, the present study aimed to determine whether disordered eating (NTE and BE) mediates the relationship between PSQ and hBMI. The hypotheses of this study were: (1) Poor sleep quality and disordered eating will be associated with high BMI; and, (2) High BMI and disordered eating will be associated with higher scores of poor sleep quality. Method Participants Participants were recruited through advertisements placed at the Australian National University (ANU) campus and a number of online platforms. Study inclusion criteria were: being ≠¥ 18 years old and a BMI of 18.5 (normal weight) or more. 678 participants opted to participate in this study; however data from only 330 participants were used because the remaining 348 did not meet the study inclusion criteria or did not complete the study. Of the 330 participants, 107 (32.4%) were males, 223 (67.6%) were females, the ages ranged from 18-87 years and the mean age was 27.42 years (SD=10.36). Procedure Participants accessed the study by clicking on an embedded URL in the advertisement. If they met the study criteria and consented to participate, they responded to an online questionnaire inquiring about: their recent experiences of sleep and eating and height and weight, to calculate their BMI. SPSS statistical software (version 22) was used to perform all statistical analyses. Two standard multiple regression analyses were performed to test the two hypotheses. Materials Demographics including education level were collected. BMI was calculated by computing participants’ weight (in kilograms) over their height (in meters); with a BMI of ≠¥25 indicating overweightness and ≠¥30 indicating obesity. Next, the PSQI assessed seven subjective domains of sleep. An overall PSQI score (ranging from 0 to 21) of >5 indicated moderate to severe sleep difficulties. Overall sleep score has high internal consistency reliability with a Cronbachs ÃŽ ± of .83 (Smith Wegener, 2003). Thirdly, BE was measured using the BES; which consists of 16-items reflecting behaviours and feelings related to eating. An overall BES score (ranging from 0 to 46) of >27 indicated binge-eating and a higher overall score indicated worse binge eating. In this study, BES had high internal consistency with a Cronbachs ÃŽ ± of .92. Finally, NTE was measured using NEQ which consists of 15 questions. An overall NEQ score (ranging from 0 to 52) of >25 indicated NTE behaviour. In t his study, the NEQ showed sufficient internal consistency with a Cronbachs alpha of .73. Results A number of outliers were detected for each of the variables; however, none of these were excluded because they represented clinically relevant cases. Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistics of overall sleep quality, BMI, BE and NTE were found to be non-significant (i.e., p); which means that these key variables were normally distributed. Two multiple regression analyses (MRA) were conducted to investigate whether: (a) PSQ and disordered eating (BE and NTE) were associated with high BMI; and (b) whether high BMI and disordered eating (BE and NTE) were associated with higher scores of PSQ. Means and standard deviations of the key variables are shown in Table 1. Table 1 Means and Standard Deviations of Key Study Variables The first MRA found that overall PSQ and BE (but not NTE) were positively associated with high BMI (the dependent variable) accounting for a significant 8% of the variability in BMI, R2 =.080, adjusted R2=.071, F (3,326) = 9.40, p=.000. Examination of the beta weights suggested that BE was the strongest unique contributor to high BMI (see Table 2).Unstandardized (B) and standardized (ÃŽ ²) regression coefficients for each predictor in the regression model are provided in Table 2. Table 2 Unstandardized (B) and Standardized (ÃŽ ²) Regression Coefficients for each Predictor in a Regression Model Predicting high BMI *p The second MRA found that high BMI and NTE (but not BE) were positively associated with overall PSQ (the dependent variable) accounting for 35.6% of the variability in overall PSQ, R2 =.356, adjusted R2=.350, F (3,326) = 59.99, p=.000. Unstandardized (B) and standardized (ÃŽ ²) regression coefficients for each predictor in the regression model are provided (see Table 3). Table 3 Unstandardized (B) and Standardized (ÃŽ ²) Regression Coefficients for each Predictor in a Regression Model Predicting Worse Overall Sleep Quality Night-eating .032 .090* *p Discussion This study aimed to determine whether disordered eating (NTE and BE) explains the relationship between PSQ and hBMI. The first hypothesis was mostly supported by the results which indicated that PSQ and BE (but not NTE) were positively associated with hBMI. The second hypothesis was also mostly supported by the results which indicated that hBMI and NTE (but not BE) were positively associated with PSQ. First, the finding that: there is a bidirectional relationship between hBMI and PSQ is in accordance with empirical research findings and meta-analyses which found that: (a) sleeping less than seven hours, having trouble falling and/or staying asleep was positively associated with hBMI; (b) obese individuals experience shorter sleep durations compared to non-obese individuals; and (c) for every hour of sleep lost the risk of obesity increased by 80%; (Cappuccio, et al., 2008; Gangwisch, Malaspina, Boden-Albala Heymsfield, 2005; Gupta, Mueller, Chan Meininger, 2002). Second, the finding that: BE was associated with hBMI was in accordance with Yeh and Brown (2014) whose meta-analyses also found that BE was positively associated with hBMI. Third, the finding that NTE was associated with PSQ is consistent with those of Crispim, Zimberg, dos Reis, Tufik and de Mello (2011) who found that NTE was associated with PSQ. The findings that did not support the hypotheses of the study included: NTE is associated with high BMI and BE is associated with PSQ. These findings are inconsistent with those of Andersen, Stunkard, Sorenson, Peterson and Heitmann (2004) who found that NTE was associated with weight gain in individuals with hBMI and Yeh and Brown (2014) whose meta-analyses found that BE is associated with PSQ. Overall, these findings mostly corroborate empirical findings and theories which claim that: there is a bidirectional positive association between hBMI and PSQ, BE is positively associated with hBMI and NTE is positively associated with PSQ. However, it is possible that there are alternative explanations for the results of this study and /or potential confounds that might have influenced the results. The first limitation of the study is that the majority of the participants were females, well-educated and of a normal weight. Therefore, it is potentially difficult to generalize these findings to the mixed gendered populations, individuals with and less well-educated populations. Second, these findings are based on subjective self-reported measures of sleep quality, eating behaviour and BMI. This is potentially problematic because individuals might be inaccurate- due to not knowing the responses to particular questions or deliberately lying- in providing response. Lastly, internet acce ss was required to participate in this study; this is a limitation because it excludes individuals who cannot gain internet access easily and/or individuals who are not technologically knowledgeable. Overall, the results of this study implicate that individuals should strive to improve their eating and sleeping habits since they seem to affect each other and that NTE should be controlled because it is associated with PSQ. In light of the limitations of this study, future research could include: mixed-gender samples (with equal amounts of male and female patticipants), using paper-based questionnaires and using objective measures of BMI, sleep quality and eating behaviour rather than subjective/self-report methods. Incorporating these suggestions could provide findings that are: more easily generalizable to the general population and more accurate measures of the key variables in the study. In conclusion, this report investigated whether poor sleep quality and disordered eating (binge-eating and night-time eating) were associated with high BMI and whether high BMI and disordered eating were associated with higher scores of poor sleep quality. The findings indicate that poor sleep quality and binge-eating (but not night-time eating) were positively associated with high BMI and high BMI and night-time eating (but not binge-eating) were positively associated with overall poor sleep quality. These findings provide useful implications for future research and for individuals’ health behaviours.

Comparing between the working class and the middle class

In this section I will be comparing between the working class and the middle class. I will also be looking into the comparisons within the classes. Finally I will be showing evidence that the gap is closing between the classes. The following will also explain the vast differences between the home of Mr Jones the dentist, which is top of the middle class, and the Widow, which is the bottom of the working class. Mr Jones lives in 4 Ravensworth Terrace and the Widow lives in 4 Francis Street Mr Jones's house was situated opposite to the park and near to the town. This was useful for work, because he owned 2 houses. One of them was his living house and the other was his dentistry house. On the other side of the museum there was the colliery village. There was a row of pit cottages here. In number 4 lived the Widow with her 2 children. The house was near the pit; this meant that the air was dusty, smoky and murky. This was also a noisy place to live, all because of one thing, the pit. The pit owned the pit cottages; these were for the families of the pit workers. They were also given free coal for working in the mine. This is a big difference to Mr Jones. He owned both of his houses. This shows that Mr Jones had a beautiful surrounding to his house and that the widow was worse off. Mr Jones lived in a house with a ground floor, first floor and an attic. On the ground floor is where Mr Jones's kitchen, living room and utility room were. On the first floor there was a master bedroom, the bathroom and a nursery. In the attic lived the maid. This is because the Jones's were more important. Outside they had a privy that only the maid used and a coal shed. This is compared to the widow's bungalow, which had a kitchen, living room/bedroom and an attic. In the widow's house there were several uses for the rooms. The front room was used for sleeping and entertaining visitors. This would only be used on special occasions like Christmas or weddings. The kitchen was used for cooking, cleaning, sleeping, bathing and drying clothes. The loft was one room, which was where the children slept. Mr Jones's house is totally different. His kitchen was used purely for cooking and cleaning, the bathroom for sanitation etc. So where as the widow's house was compact Mr Jones's house was spacious. The gardens for Francis Street were large. This is because they needed to grow fruit and vegetables, because they could not afford to buy fresh produce. On the other hand Mr Jones had a small garden because he could afford to buy fresh fruit and vegetables each day. In his garden he was able to grow flowers and shrubs. The sanitation of the houses was different. The widow's toilet was an ash pit privy outside. For toilet paper they used newspaper cut into squares. Mr Jones's was very different. He had a plumbed in bathroom with shower, bath, sink and flushing toilet. They also had an outside privy, which was purely used by the maid. The plumbed in bathroom was for family only. This is compared to the widow who had a tin bath hanging on the wall outside and had a cold-water tap in the utility room. Mr Jones was totally different because he had hot and cold taps inside and a plumbed in bath too. In the widow's house there was only candle light, she also had a fire lit 24 hours a day, six days a week, 365 days a year. The reason for the fire not being on for 7 days a week was so that the family could clean it. This provided heat to cook on and boiled water. It also lights up the kitchen and also heats the house up. Mr Jones on the other hand had electric lighting in every room with electric heaters. He only had one need for an open fire because he needed it for appearances and heating. He also had a cooker fire, which was used for cooking. This shows the vast differences between the top of the middle class and the bottom of the working class. I am comparing 2 and 4 Francis Street. In number 2 lived The Methodist family, and in number 4 lived the Widow. I will explore the main differences between each. The families were both working class and lived in pit cottages. There were a lot of differences between them. Firstly I will be explaining the bedding, which each family had. In both houses they had 3 beds. One in the front room, one in the attic and one in the kitchen. In the widows house 1 child would sleep in the kitchen, the other child would sleep in the loft and the widow would sleep in the double bed in the front room. This was the same for the Methodist Family, except that the Mum and Dad would have slept in the front room. In the widows house she had thin sheets in the kitchen, because of the heat from the fire. The bed in the loft would have thin sheets too; this is because they had an open chimney. The bed in the front room would have a homemade quilt and she had hooky mats for extra warmth. This is compared to the Methodist's, their beds in the kitchen and loft would be the same, but the bed in the front room would have a thick white duvet. This showed wealth, because after the miners came home from work they would be covered in coal dust, so their covers will get dirty more often. Now I will extract the differences between the furniture of each house. The widow had a brass double bed; this was the cheapest at the time, a sofa, and a table; with floor mats as a tablecloth. This shows that the widow didn't have enough money to buy new objects. This is compared to the Methodist's. I will start with their half-tester bed; this was a bed, which had 2 posts with cloth draped over the top. They had a chest with a showcase with pottery and books on show, also a couple of tables with tablecloths, a rocking chair and a fireplace. This shows that they have more money to spend on luxuries. There is a huge difference in the furniture. Now I will look into the different floors in each house. In the widow's house she had stone floors with a lot of hooky mats. These were all different because the family did not have enough money to afford carpets. Now I will look at the Methodist family. They had fitted carpets and carpets up the stairs. This shows the family is well off because they could afford the carpets to be fitted. Now I will evaluate the differences in lighting in each house. The widow has oil lamps; the only problem was that she could not afford to use them. Instead they had to use candles. They could not afford oil because they barely had enough money to get by. This is compared with the Methodist family. They too had oil lamps; they used their oil lamps regularly. This shows they had money to spend. Looking at the income of each household, the widow had to work for extra income just to get by together with the low income from her two mining sons. She made her extra income by making and selling hooky and proggy mats, organising a quilting club in her home where other working class women sat around the fire and made quilts for a small charge. She also took in washing from other people, which added to her income. This compared to the Methodist family who had adequate money from the husband and children who worked down the pit. They needed no extra income to add to their wages. All the information above shows that even though the Methodist family and the widow are in the same social class their lives are totally different. In the next section I will be explaining how different Mr Jones's houses were to Miss Smith's house. Even though they are both in the same class their homes were very different. Mr Jones lives at 4 Ravensworth Terrace and a couple of doors down lived Miss Smith at No 2. First I will be explaining where each houses money came from. Miss Smith's money came from her music teaching. She charged 6d per half hour. This is 2 1/2 pence in today's currency. Whereas the dentist, Mr Jones, charged 15 shillings for a filling; à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½1 7s 6d for a false tooth; and à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½10 10s (10 guinea) for a full set of false teeth. This shows the huge difference in one days work. The difference between both heating and cooking in each household are that in Mr Jones's house he had a gas cooker and a fire range. For heating he had electric heaters around the home. This is being compared to Miss Smith's home where she had an open fire in the front room and her bedroom. This would only be lit if she were ill in bed. Her maid cooked on a coal fire range in the kitchen. The lighting in each house varied because Mr Jones had electric lighting in each room throughout each of his houses. This shows that he was wealthy because he could afford to have this installed. This is compared to Miss Smith who only used oil lamps through her house. The sanitation which each house had was different because Mr Jones had a fully plumbed in bath, flushing toilet and shower in the bathroom as well hot and cold water taps. He also had an outside toilet, which only the maid used. This is a vast difference to Miss Smith. She had an outside toilet and a tin bath hanging from the outside wall. They brought this in front of the fire range. For the morning wash the maid would fetch a hot bowel of water to each bedroom. Mr Jones had several stained glass windows, a gramophone and a nursery for the children. This is compared with Miss Smith's luxuries, which were 7-1/2 octaves piano, carpets fitted up the stairs, biblical plaque readings and a stained glass window. The next comparison area is the servants in each house. Miss Smith had a level maid. This means that the maid lived on the same floor was her. Miss Smith's maid used the same washing and sanitation as herself. This is compared to the maid of Mr Jones. He had a maid, which slept in the attic and could not wash or use his plumbed in bathroom. She had to use a tin bath and the outside toilet. Even though they were in the same social category there were a lot of differences between them. I have explained earlier the vast differences between the top of the middle class (Mr Jones) and the bottom of the working class (the widow). Also I have explained the differences between the two working class houses and the homes of the two middle class houses. I will be looking in more depth between the middle class home of Miss Smith and the working class home of the Methodist family and finding similarities. For example both houses were of Victorian dà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½cor. This was dark colours, dark fabrics for curtains and drapes and bold wallpaper. This was unusual because in 1913 the most common dà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½cor was Georgian. In each of the houses there was a coal fire, this was the heat source for both. This was also used as the method of cooking. They both had fitted carpets up the stairs and around the house. Their ornaments and pictures were also very similar. Each house had two matching china dogs and several portraits of the Royal Family of the time. The lighting for each house was oil lamps. Unlike the widow both families could afford to use it, but they could not afford electricity. The similarities of sanitation were that each house would have a tin bath, cold tap and an outside toilet. From the information I have gathered and presented I have found a hierarchy of families. They are: * Mr Jones the dentist * Miss Smith the music teacher * Methodist family * The Widow Miss Smith could not live like Mr Jones because she had something called â€Å"old money†. This is money, which she inherited when her parents passed away, whilst Mr Jones had â€Å"new money†. This is money, which he had earned. Mr Jones had a constant supply of money from work whereas Miss Smith's money would eventually decrease. The widow could not afford to live in the same condition as the Methodist family because she only had her sons bringing in wages from the pit. If her husband were still alive she would be able to live more like the Methodist family. So, I think that the gaps between the classes were closing at this period of time. This is because their houses were very similar. Their style of decoration, heat, light etc was of the same standards.

Things You Should Know About Online Research Paper

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Essay about Effects of Organizational Culture on Police...

This essay discusses the effects of the police organizational culture on a Police officer’s ability to make independent decisions. Every culture is composed of four elements: â€Å"values, norms, beliefs, and expressive symbols† (Peterson, 1979, p. 137). Each police officer is influenced by the police organizational culture during training. After graduation fro the police academy, the officer is influenced by the more experienced officers of the department. Research conducted by several authors has found that peer influence never ceases even after years of experience in the field. Throughout life, people change their point of views by the impact of the people they encounter and the structure of society. Although people initially†¦show more content†¦The belief systems found in the police organizations is the idea that crime is only fault by police officers who dislike patrolling of their local communities. Police are above the law in a secrete brotherhood , while the general public are ignorant, obstructive and overly demanding. The anarchic ideas embedded into the officers can lead to misuse of power, misconduct and corruption. The composition by recruiting officers is to manufacture loyalty and conformity by implying the craving to seek approval during training and later by experienced officers during their career. Leading officers frequently influence new recruits by their unethical behavior and poor decisions making. Many officers are aware of the wrong behaviors, while others justify their actions by the principles â€Å"us versus evil† that â€Å"justifies all that police do to control their turf, including righteous abuse of suspects and malcontents† (Crank, 1998). Most officers will follow their footsteps out of fear, rejection, and becoming cut off from the organization. Although, a small percentage of officer keep their common sense and independent decision making skills in their job performance; to avoid becoming an outcast officers adhere to the â€Å"code of silence† out of survival. In many cases, retaliation is not an option for officers because this is their lively hood for theirShow MoreRelatedThe Code Of Ethics And The Police Department848 Words   |  4 PagesOrganizational climate is essential in developing a culture of incorruptible individuals and this climate is set by the organizations leaders. Within the SCORE unit of the Kansas City, Kansas Police Department (KCKPD) at the time of the indictment, it was not clear if leaders set a tone of ethical conduct, nor did it appear that principled conduct was the cornerstone of the command leadership philosophy. 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